Thymosin Alpha-1 Compound

SOURCES // THE RECORD

Thymosin Alpha-1: References and Source Literature

Every study cited across this field guide, indexed with its DOI and PubMed link.

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How to read this list

These are the peer-reviewed sources behind every cited claim on this site, numbered to match the bracketed markers in the text. The list spans four decades of Thymosin Alpha-1 research — from the 1977 isolation and sequencing through the 2025 phase-3 sepsis trial and the 2025 aging review. Each entry carries its authors, journal, year, DOI where available, and a PubMed link. Where a finding is contested or a trial was null, that is stated in the body text the citation supports, not softened here.

  1. Goldstein AL, Low TL, McAdoo M, et al. Thymosin alpha1: isolation and sequence analysis of an immunologically active thymic polypeptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977;74(2):725-729. ↗
  2. Wu J, Zhou L, Liu J, et al. The efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 for severe sepsis (ETASS): a multicenter, single-blind, randomized and controlled trial. Crit Care. 2013;17(1):R8. ↗
  3. Wu J, Pei F, Zhou L, et al. The efficacy and safety of thymosin alpha1 for sepsis (TESTS): multicentre, double blinded, randomised, placebo controlled, phase 3 trial. BMJ. 2025;388:e082583. ↗
  4. Dominari A, Hathaway III D, Pandav K, et al. Thymosin alpha 1: A comprehensive review of the literature. World J Virol. 2020;9(5):67-78. ↗
  5. Romani L, Bistoni F, Montagnoli C, et al. Thymosin alpha1 activates dendritic cell tryptophan catabolism and establishes a regulatory environment for balance of inflammation and tolerance. Blood. 2006;108(7):2265-2274. ↗
  6. Liu Y, Pan Y, Hu Z, et al. Thymosin Alpha 1 Reduces the Mortality of Severe Coronavirus Disease 2019 by Restoration of Lymphocytopenia and Reversion of Exhausted T Cells. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(16):2150-2157. ↗
  7. Costantini C, Bellet MM, Pariano M, et al. A Reappraisal of Thymosin Alpha1 in Cancer Therapy. Front Oncol. 2019;9:873. ↗
  8. Gravenstein S, Duthie EH, Miller BA, et al. Augmentation of influenza antibody response in elderly men by thymosin alpha one. A double-blind placebo-controlled clinical study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1989;37(1):1-8. ↗
  9. Ershler WB, Gravenstein S, Geloo ZS. Thymosin alpha 1 as an adjunct to influenza vaccination in the elderly: rationale and trial summaries. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1112:375-384. ↗
  10. Ershler WB, Moore AL, Socinski MA. Influenza and aging: age-related changes and the effects of thymosin on the antibody response to influenza vaccine. J Clin Immunol. 1984;4(6):445-454. ↗
  11. Panatto D, Amicizia D, Lai PL, Camerini R, De Rosa A, Gasparini R. Utility of thymosin alpha-1 as a co-adjuvant in influenza vaccines: a review. J Prev Med Hyg. 2011;52(3):111-115. ↗
  12. Pica F, Chimenti MS, Gaziano R, et al. Serum thymosin α1 levels in patients with chronic inflammatory autoimmune diseases. Clin Exp Immunol. 2016;186(1):39-45. ↗
  13. Naylor PH, Mutchnick MG. Immunotherapy for hepatitis B in the direct acting antiviral era: Reevaluating the thymosin α1 efficacy trials in the light of a combination therapy approach. J Viral Hepat. 2018;25(1):4-9. ↗
  14. Wu M, Ji JJ, Zhong L, et al. Thymosin α1 therapy in critically ill patients with COVID-19: A multicenter retrospective cohort study. Int Immunopharmacol. 2020;88:106873. ↗
  15. Matteucci C, Grelli S, Balestrieri E, et al. Thymosin alpha 1 and HIV-1: recent advances and future perspectives. Future Microbiol. 2017;12:141-155. ↗
  16. Simonova MA, Ivanov I, Shoshina NS, Komyakova AM, et al. Aging and Thymosin Alpha-1. Int J Mol Sci. 2025;26(23):11470. ↗